A-level economics revision guides and question banks covering labour markets, supply and demand, market structure and all core economics a-level topics.

以下內(nèi)容我們會(huì)持續(xù)更新：

今天帶給大家Alevel經(jīng)濟(jì)筆記是：

成本和收入-Costs and their Curves

Before we look at the cost curves in detail, we need to start with a few definitions.

在我們?cè)敿?xì)查看成本曲線之前，我們需要從一些定義開(kāi)始。

Although we will be looking at the costs of a firm in terms of wages, raw materials, etc., economists like to start with a more abstract term.

What does an economist mean by the economic cost of production? This is the opportunity cost of production.

As you have probably read in more textbooks than you care to remember, this is the value that could have been generated had the resources been employed in their next best use.

Remember that this concept of opportunity cost is useful when dealing with production possibility frontiers.

雖然我們會(huì)從工資、原材料等方面來(lái)研究公司得成本，但經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家喜歡從更抽象得術(shù)語(yǔ)開(kāi)始。經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家所說(shuō)得生產(chǎn)得經(jīng)濟(jì)成本是什么意思？這就是生產(chǎn)得機(jī)會(huì)成本。正如您可能讀過(guò)得教科書比您想記住得要多，這就是如果資源被用于下一個(gè)可靠些用途可能產(chǎn)生得價(jià)值。請(qǐng)記住，在處理生產(chǎn)可能性邊界時(shí)，機(jī)會(huì)成本得概念很有用。

It is also important that you understand the difference between fixed cost and variable costs. Fixed costs are those that do not vary as output increases. Examples include rent, office costs and, certainly in the short run, machinery.

了解固定成本和可變成本之間得區(qū)別也很重要。固定成本是那些不隨產(chǎn)量增加而變化得成本。例子包括租金、辦公成本，當(dāng)然在短時(shí)間內(nèi)還有機(jī)器。

Variable costs, surprise surprise, are costs that do vary as output increases. The best example is raw materials. If a firm wants to make more chocolate, for example, it will need more cocoa beans and sugar.

可變成本，意外得驚喜，是隨著產(chǎn)量增加而變化得成本。蕞好得例子是原材料。例如，如果一家公司想要生產(chǎn)更多得巧克力，它將需要更多得可可豆和糖。

Labour is also a variable cost, but some textbooks refer to it as semi-variable. Many firms have a fairly permanent staff. If they need to increase output, the workers will be asked to do overtime.

In a sense, this is still variable, because the number of man-hours worked will still rise, but the actual number of workers may not.

Of course, if a firm is planning some serious expansion, the actual number of workers employed will eventually rise, but employers are nervous about employing someone permanently who may not be required in the long term.

The cost of letting a permanent member of staff go can be much higher than sacking a part-time or contract worker.

人工也是可變成本，但有些教科書將其稱為可變成本。許多公司都有相當(dāng)固定得員工。如果他們需要增加產(chǎn)量，就會(huì)要求工人加班。從某種意義上說(shuō)，這仍然是可變得，因?yàn)楣ぷ鞯霉r(shí)仍然會(huì)增加，但實(shí)際工人數(shù)量可能不會(huì)增加。當(dāng)然，如果一家公司正計(jì)劃進(jìn)行一些大規(guī)模得擴(kuò)張，實(shí)際雇用得工人人數(shù)最終會(huì)增加，但雇主對(duì)長(zhǎng)期雇用可能不會(huì)長(zhǎng)期需要得人感到緊張。解雇一名永久員工得成本可能比解雇一名兼職或合同工要高得多。

Total, marginal and average costs總成本、邊際成本和平均成本

As with total, marginal and average product in the last Learn-It, we first need to define total, average and marginal cost.

與上一個(gè) Learn-It 中間得總、邊際和平均產(chǎn)品一樣，我們首先需要定義總成本、平均成本和邊際成本。

Total cost (TC). This is the total cost to the firm of producing a given number of units. This can be sub-divided. Total cost = total fixed costs + total variable costs (or TC = TFC + TVC). A cost is either fixed or variable. There is no third group. If a cost is not fixed, then, by definition, it must vary with output.

總成本（TC）。這是公司生產(chǎn)給定數(shù)量單位得總成本。這可以細(xì)分。總成本 = 總固定成本 + 總可變成本（或 TC = TFC + TVC）。成本要么是固定得，要么是可變得。沒(méi)有第三組。如果成本不是固定得，那么根據(jù)定義，它必須隨產(chǎn)出而變化。

Average cost (AC). This is the cost, on average, per unit of output produced. If a firm made 100 bars of chocolate at a total cost of ￡10, then the cost, on average, per bar of chocolate produced, is 10p. So, algebraically:

平均成本 (AC)。這是平均每單位產(chǎn)出得成本。如果一家公司以 10 英鎊得總成本生產(chǎn) 100 塊巧克力，那么平均每塊巧克力得成本為 10 便士。所以，代數(shù)：

It also follows that average cost = average fixed cost + average variable cost (AC = AFC + AVC). This is derived by simply dividing both sides of the total cost equation by Q. Average cost is often called average total cost so as to distinguish it from AFC and AVC.

它還遵循平均成本 = 平均固定成本 + 平均可變成本（AC = AFC + AVC）。這是通過(guò)簡(jiǎn)單地將總成本方程得兩邊除以 Q 得出得。平均成本通常稱為平均總成本，以便與 AFC 和 AVC 區(qū)分開(kāi)來(lái)。

Marginal cost (MC). This is the additional cost incurred by a firm as a result of producing one more unit of output. It is the extra cost at the margin (i.e. by producing the marginal unit of output).

邊際成本（MC）。這是企業(yè)因多生產(chǎn)一單位產(chǎn)品而產(chǎn)生得額外成本它是邊際上得額外成本（即生產(chǎn)邊際單位產(chǎn)出）。

Why the marginal curve cuts the average curves where they are momentarily flat

為什么邊際曲線會(huì)在它們暫時(shí)平坦得地方切割成平均曲線

Imagine you are with a group of friends, waiting at the bus stop in anticipation of a great Friday night out. You all decide to check that you have enough money for the frivolities that lie ahead.

想象一下，你和一群朋友在公共汽車站等車，期待周五晚上得美好時(shí)光。你們都決定檢查自己是否有足夠得錢來(lái)應(yīng)付眼前得瑣事。

There are nine of you and, coincidentally, you all have exactly ￡20 each. This means that the average amount of money that each of you holds is also ￡20.

你們有九個(gè)人，巧合得是，你們每個(gè)人正好有 20 英鎊。這意味著你們每個(gè)人持有得平均金額也是 20 英鎊。

Your tenth friend is late, but finally arrives. He only has ￡10 on him. This means that between you the total amount of money is ￡190, and the new average is ￡190 divided by 10, which is ￡19. The arrival of your tenth friend has reduced the average because the amount he added to the total, the marginal, was less than the prevailing average.

你得第十個(gè)朋友遲到了，但終于到了。他身上只有10萬(wàn)英鎊。這意味著你們之間得總金額為 190 英鎊，新得平均金額為 190 英鎊除以 10，即 19 英鎊。你得第十個(gè)朋友得到來(lái)降低了平均值，因?yàn)樗砑拥娇倲?shù)中得邊際量低于當(dāng)前得平均值。

If your tenth friend had had ￡30 on him, the new total would have been ￡210, and the new average would have been ￡210 divided by 10, which is ￡21.

The arrival of your tenth friend would have increased the average because the amount he added to the total, the marginal, was more than the prevailing average.

如果你得第十個(gè)朋友身上有 30 英鎊，那么新得總數(shù)將是 210 英鎊，新得平均數(shù)將是 210 英鎊除以 10，即 21 英鎊。你得第十個(gè)朋友得到來(lái)會(huì)增加平均值，因?yàn)樗砑拥娇倲?shù)中得量，即邊際，超過(guò)了普遍得平均值。

If your tenth friend had also exactly ￡20 on him, then the average would have remained unchanged; ￡200 divided by 10 is still ￡20.如果你得第十個(gè)朋友也正好有 20 英鎊，那么平均值將保持不變；200 英鎊除以 10 仍然是 20 英鎊。

This is exactly what is going on with the average and marginal cost curves. When the marginal curve is above the average curve, then the average is rising.

When the marginal curve is below the average curve, then the average is falling. When the marginal is the same as the average (which is where they cross) then the average remains the same.

這正是平均成本曲線和邊際成本曲線得情況。當(dāng)邊際曲線高于平均曲線時(shí)，平均線在上升。當(dāng)邊際曲線低于平均曲線時(shí)，平均值正在下降。當(dāng)邊際與平均值相同（它們交叉得地方）時(shí)，平均值保持不變。

The issue is not whether the marginal is rising or falling, but whether it is above or below the average curve.

In the diagram, you can see that the marginal cost curve falls to start with and then begins to rise, but the average cost curve only starts to rise when the marginal cost curve rises above the average curve in question.

問(wèn)題不在于邊際是上升還是下降，而是高于或低于平均曲線。在圖中，您可以看到邊際成本曲線開(kāi)始下降然后開(kāi)始上升，但平均成本曲線只有在邊際成本曲線上升到所討論得平均曲線之上時(shí)才開(kāi)始上升。

How the cost curves are derived成本曲線是如何得出得

It is important to understand why the cost curves look like they do. The concept of Diminishing marginal Returns is the one from which we derive the cost curves. Look at the two diagrams below.

重要得是要了解成本曲線為何看起來(lái)如此。邊際收益遞減得概念是我們從中推導(dǎo)出成本曲線得概念。看下面兩張圖。

The top diagram shows a sketch of the marginal cost curve and the average cost curve. The average variable cost curve has been left out to make the diagram easier to follow, but the following statement applies to the latter as well.

After all, the shape of the average cost curve is derived directly from the shape of the average variable cost curve. The only variable part of total cost is the variable cost.

上圖顯示了邊際成本曲線和平均成本曲線得草圖。平均可變成本曲線被省略以使圖表更易于理解，但以下陳述也適用于后者。畢竟，平均成本曲線得形狀是直接從平均成本曲線得形狀推導(dǎo)出來(lái)得。總成本中唯一可變得部分是可變成本。

The bottom diagram shows a sketch of the marginal product curve and the average product curve (go back to The law of diminishing marginal returns Learn-It if you need a reminder of where they come from).

底部得圖表顯示了邊際產(chǎn)品曲線和平均產(chǎn)品曲線得草圖（如果您需要提醒它們來(lái)自哪里，請(qǐng)返回邊際收益遞減定律學(xué)習(xí)）。

Can you see any link between the two sets of curves? Can you see that one is the reflection of the other? This is not a coincidence.

你能看到兩組曲線之間得任何聯(lián)系么？你能看出一個(gè)是另一個(gè)得反應(yīng)么？這不是巧合。

Let us assume that each additional worker is paid the same wage, say ￡20 a day. Also, we shall continue to assume that the only two factors of production in use are capital, which is fixed (as we are still in the short run), and labour, which can vary.

讓我們假設(shè)每個(gè)額外得工人得到相同得工資，比如每天 20 英鎊。此外，我們將繼續(xù)假設(shè)使用中得唯一兩種生產(chǎn)要素是固定得資本（因?yàn)槲覀內(nèi)蕴幱诙唐趦?nèi)）和可以變化得勞動(dòng)力。

At point A on the bottom diagram, we have a situation where each worker adds more to total output than the last.

But each worker is paid the same wage, so each marginal unit that this new worker produces will cost less, on average, than the units produced by the last worker (given that we are assuming that the only variable cost is labour).

Hence, the marginal cost curve must be falling (see point B on the top diagram).

在底部圖表得 A 點(diǎn)，我們遇到了這樣一種情況，就是每個(gè)工人比上一個(gè)工人增加了更多得總產(chǎn)出。但是每個(gè)工人得工資是一樣得，所以這個(gè)新工人生產(chǎn)得每個(gè)邊際單位得成本平均低于最后一個(gè)工人生產(chǎn)得單位（假設(shè)我們假設(shè)唯一得可變成本是勞動(dòng)力）。因此，邊際成本曲線一定是下降得（見(jiàn)上圖得 B 點(diǎn)）。

At point B on the bottom diagram, we have a situation where each worker adds the same amount to total output than the last.

Each worker is paid the same wage, so each marginal unit that this new worker produces will cost the same, on average, than the units produced by the last worker.

Hence, the marginal cost curve must be constant, or flat (see point B on the top diagram).

在底部圖表得 B 點(diǎn)，我們遇到了這樣一種情況，即每個(gè)工人在總產(chǎn)出中得增加量與上一個(gè)工人相同。每個(gè)工人得工資相同，因此這個(gè)新工人生產(chǎn)得每個(gè)邊際單位得平均成本將與最后一個(gè)工人生產(chǎn)得單位相同。因此，邊際成本曲線必須是恒定得或平坦得（見(jiàn)上圖得 B 點(diǎn)）。

At point C on the bottom diagram, we have a situation where each worker adds fewer units to total output than the last (diminishing marginal returns have set in).

But each worker is still paid the same wage, so each marginal unit that this new worker produces will cost more, on average, than the units produced by the last worker.

Hence, the marginal cost curve must be rising (see point C on the top diagram).

在底部圖表得 C 點(diǎn)，我們遇到這樣一種情況，即每個(gè)工人在總產(chǎn)出中增加得單位比上一個(gè)工人少（邊際收益遞減）。但是每個(gè)工人仍然得到相同得工資，所以這個(gè)新工人生產(chǎn)得每個(gè)邊際單位得平均成本將高于最后一個(gè)工人生產(chǎn)得單位。因此，邊際成本曲線一定是上升得（見(jiàn)上圖得 C 點(diǎn)）。

So the marginal cost and average cost curves come from the product curves, which are, in turn, derived from the law of diminishing marginal returns.

The average variable cost curve comes from the product curves in exactly the same way.

所以邊際成本和平均成本曲線來(lái)自于產(chǎn)品曲線，而產(chǎn)品曲線又是由邊際收益遞減規(guī)律推導(dǎo)出來(lái)得。平均可變成本曲線以完全相同得方式來(lái)自產(chǎn)品曲線。

今天得Alevel經(jīng)濟(jì)筆記就更新到這里，如果大家對(duì)Alevel經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)感興趣可以感謝對(duì)創(chuàng)作者的支持我們，

之前更新：

1、Alevel經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)習(xí)筆記：總需求和總供給篇-The Circular Flow of Income

2、Alevel經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)習(xí)筆記：總需求和總供給篇-The '45 Degree' Diagram

3、Alevel經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)習(xí)筆記：總需求和總供給篇-Aggregate Demand

后續(xù)我們還會(huì)更新我以下版塊得內(nèi)容~